In their natural environment, hens recognise each other, form friendships and develop social hierarchies. They have more than 30 types of vocalisations, are inquisitive, make conscious decisions and can out- perform dogs on cognitive tests, A hen has strong maternal instincts. She bonds with her chicks before they are born, by turning her eggs every hour while clucking to the baby chicks inside, who reciprocate by chirping in return. When hatched they stay close to their mother for warmth and protection, and she shelters them under her wings.
Hens can live 6-10 years. They have retained the same repertoire of behaviours as their jungle fowl ancestors and spend 50-90% of their time foraging (searching and scratching at the ground for food items, such as seeds, earthworms and flying insects). They dust-bathe by digging a hole to jump in, and cover themselves in dry dust to remove parasites and clean and maintain their feathers, which helps to regulate their body temperature.
Hens roost on perches at night with their flock-mates (in the wild this protects them from predators and helps to conserve body heat). When nesting they have a distinct need to perform pre-laying behaviours, and a strong preference for a discrete enclosed nest site, to lay an egg. They have comfort and grooming behaviours, which include wing stretching and flapping, feather ruffling, fluttering and head scratching.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF CHICKENS: one is bred for egg production (layers) and the other is reared to produce meat (broilers). Egg-laying hens have been selectively bred to lay lots of eggs, and they grow at a normal rate. Broiler chickens are selectively bred for meat and grow twice as quickly.
BROILER CHICKENS
The broiler industry: has grown as red meat consumption declines, due to consumer demand for affordable poultry meat, which accounts for 49% of all meat eaten in the UK. The life of chickens destined for meat production consists of two distinct phases. They are born in a hatchery and move to a growing farm, where they remain until they are slaughtered.
Hatchery: the parent birds (breeder birds) used to produce meat chickens, have their eggs removed and they are placed inside giant industrial incubators. Around 21 days the chicks hatch, using their egg tooth to break out of their shell (in a natural situation the mother would help with this). Chicks are precocial, which means immediately after they hatch, they are relatively mature and can walk around.
Transport of chicks and vaccinations: at one day old, the chicks are transported en masse in boxes along a conveyor belt, from the hatchery to rearing farms. During this process all broiler chicks (including organic) are vaccinated against several different diseases, such as salmonella, which are delivered via spraying or drinking water. Because they reach slaughter weight within several weeks, it leaves little time to develop a healthy immune system.
Intensive( industrial) farming system: broiler chickens are selectively bred to grow abnormally fast (large breast muscles and legs) typically gaining weight at over 50g/day. Rapid growth puts enormous strain on their skeletons, often causing leg deformities, so the birds cannot support their own weight, which can prevent them from reaching the food and water. Up to 2% may be unable to stand. In UK alone, millions die from heart failure each year. In natural circumstances, chickens reach adult size in about a year.
Unlike laying hens which live for around a year, broilers only live for about 6 weeks before being slaughtered (EU around 5-7 weeks). The broiler shed will be the only life they ever know. A living hell. Reverend Andrew Lindzey (2009) described it like this, “It is in the battery shed/broiler house that we find a parallel to Auschwitz”.
Globally, over 70% of chickens are raised in similar intensive systems (CIWF 2013). This includes many of the chickens in UK (80%), Europe and US. The standard broiler shed in Europe is windowless, but sometimes retailers or assurance schemes require windows to allow natural daylight. In Sweden, windows to let in daylight are mandatory.
Housing system: broilers are placed in giant rearing sheds, and kept in a large mixed-sex flock, which can consist of 20,000-50,000 birds. Each have the space of a computer screen and are unable to spread their wings. These huge windowless sheds are artificially lit (deters them from sleeping/ makes them eat more) and generally barren except for feeding and drinking points. They are reared on a concrete floor covered with straw, wood shavings, peat or paper to absorb chicken excreta.
The litter soon becomes saturated with excrement, and the broilers are forced to spend their entire lives sitting or standing in that. It is usually not cleaned out during the bird’s lifetime, but after each batch, the house is cleaned and disinfected. The ammonia released from the birds’ droppings can damage their eyes and respiratory systems and also results in conditions like hock burn (burns to feet and legs) breast blisters, and ulcerated feet. (Black marks caused by ammonia are often seen on chickens sold in the supermarkets)
Crowded dirty conditions are a breeding ground for contagious diseases, so many birds are routinely given antibiotic-laced food to keep them alive. 6% die (more than 50 million each year) in sheds due to starvation or disease. Salmonella is most prevalent. They are unable to adjust to their environment to avoid heat, cold or dirt as they would in natural conditions. It can get very hot inside these sheds in summer, and if the ventilation system fails thousands of birds can die of stress.
High protein feed is available at all times, and is usually delivered via an automated feeding system. Some farms will feed whole-grains and not processed cereals. With so many birds as well as the sound of the feeding machines and cooling systems day and night, it is extremely noisy, making it difficult for the birds to rest. Nervous broilers can suffocate due to ‘piling.’ A sudden loud disturbance/intrusion can cause birds to panic. They flee to a corner in a terrified rush to safety, and pile on top of each other.
Broilers stay at the rearing farm until they reach slaughter age. When this comes nearer, flocks are often thinned (not practiced in US) which involves catching and removing a portion of them (usually female birds who are lighter) for slaughter to allow the remaining birds more room to grow to a greater weight. Birds left are likely to be stressed as a result of this, making them more susceptible to bacterial infections such as Campylobacter, a cause of food poisoning which poses public concern.
Higher welfare alternative systems: chickens in these farming systems will have more space and are often slower growing breeds, slaughtered at an older age. The environment can also be enhanced with indoor enrichment and/or with an outdoor area. In the EU only a small proportion are reared like this.
Higher welfare indoor systems: chickens are kept indoors but they have enrichment (perches, straw bales) to encourage natural behaviour like foraging and perching. They have more space, natural light and grow more slowly (e.g. in UK the RSPCA food label outlines a maximum stocking density and growth rate not exceeding 45 grams per day). They live up to two more weeks longer, compared to intensive breeds.
Free-range: the housing provided is either a fixed shed or mobile house, that can be moved around the pasture. Chickens should have access to outdoors during the daytime for at least half of their lifetime. Openings called ‘pop holes’ allow access outside. Chickens use free-range more if it is good quality such as cover, in the form of trees, bushes or hedges or with artificial shelters. At night they come inside from predators. They gain weight more slowly than intensive chickens, and live longer, at least 56 days.
Organic: are free-range, have outdoor access, and are also slower growing (half the rate of intensive chickens) and have a reduced stocking density. EU organic standards stipulate that chickens should be reared until they reach the minimum slaughter age of 81 days.
Catching, loading, transporting and unloading to the slaughterhouse: chickens panic and struggle as several are grabbed by one leg or both, and carried upside down and stuffed into crates by chicken catchers. This is particularly painful when leg problems already exist. Injuries such as dislocated hips, fractured legs and wings are common. Combined with stress, this leads to many deaths on arrival. Automated methods also exist. Chicken harvesters (resembling giant road sweepers) collect the birds, deposit them on to a transport belt, which then conveys them into the drawers of a transport container system. Journey duration can be long. They are usually deprived of food for several hours. Broilers are still babies when they die. They have blue eyes, high pitched cheeps and adult bodies.
Broiler parent birds (breeders) and their housing system: these birds which are used to breed the chicks, that become broiler meat chickens are allowed to live until sexual maturity. They are kept in relatively small single-sex flocks, about 2,500-3,000, and are transferred to the production farms at 16-21 weeks, and stay there in mixed sex groups. Egg production usually starts between 18-22 weeks of age and lasts until 60-65 weeks. Mother hens never meet their own chicks, so their strong maternal feelings are utterly denied.
Around 50% or less of the floor in the houses will be raised and slatted. Nests are positioned on the slats and can either be collective nests with an automated egg collection or individual nests. Maintaining a good and dry litter is essential (wood shavings or straw) to keep the nest and eggs clean. Enrichment is not commonly used, although some perches and elevated platforms are required in Sweden and Norway.
Mutilations: at the hatchery besides being vaccinated, chicks may undergo one or more mutilations such as beak trimming (not normally organic), de-spurring and de-toeing, all without pain relief, or toe-clipping. These are done to reduce feather injury, due to forced matings or fighting between males.
Broiler parents suffer the same health problems associated with rapid growth as their progeny. To keep them healthy and achieve the desired levels of fertility, they are restricted to a quarter of their normal diet when growing. They can be stressed, frustrated and chronically hungry as a result. In Europe natural mating is mostly used. Lower stocking densities lead to more appropriate mating behaviour and courtships. End-of-lay broiler breeders are sent for commercial slaughter like standard broilers.
EGG-LAYING CHICKENS
Like broilers, egg-layers are hatched in industrial incubators. The chicks are placed on a conveyor belt, vaccinated and sexed. Females are kept, males are culled. Chicks usually have their beaks trimmed (unless for organic systems) and are kept in rearing units until they reach pullet stage, around 16 weeks. Just before they start to lay, they go to a laying farm, either organic, free-range, barn or cage. Whatever their lifestyle, they all go to slaughter around 72 weeks of age, as egg production declines. They produce up to 300 eggs per year.
The enriched or colony cage: has replaced the battery cage, where each hen was squeezed into less room than an A4 size of paper. Since their wing span is about four times this, they had no room to turn around. The bare wire mesh floor cut into their feet. Without straw, their natural instincts were denied. Those were banned in the EU in 2012. The new wire cage houses 60-80 hens each, it is similar to the battery cage, but has a postcard size extra space, and is contained within a colony. Colonies are tiered and a single hen house may contain many tens of thousands of birds.
They were designed to give the hens the potential to nest, roost, scratch and stretch, but they are still severely restricted and unable to stretch/flap their wings. There tends to be one nest box (not required to have any bedding material in it) limited perching, and a dust bathing area in each cage. Dominant hens may prevent others from ever accessing these facilities. Critics say it is harder to identify ailing birds now. Hens lay eggs, because it’s a normal bodily function, which they have no control over. Like hens in the wild, they need a private place to do this, which is not available. It takes energy, and the process can take an hour or more.
Hens lay more when the days are longer, so artificial lighting is kept on part of the night to promote this. Even with good food, the constant demand for calcium to produce egg shells often results in weak brittle bones, which are prone to fracture. Caged hens particularly suffer, since a lack of exercise also weakens their bones. Their claws can grow too long and become caught up in the floor of the cage, preventing them getting food and water. Usually cages have a sloping floor which are uncomfortable and injurious for the hen but the eggs can roll easily for collection or they are carried by a conveyor belt to a packing plant.
Caged hens are noisy. The birds can’t rest undisturbed. Overcrowding, and frustration leads them to feather pecking (thought to be a redirection of a hen’s natural instinct to peck at the ground) and cannibalism. Most egg producers de-beak laying hens more than once, since they live longer. Cramped conditions lead to the spread of diseases. Some birds die early. Maybe better, if they have nothing more in store than crowded discomfort. Life is one of boredom and suffering. They will never forage around the soil, or enjoy activities such as walking, running, jumping, fluttering and flying. They live in a cage their entire life.
When production declines, in order to shock hen’s bodies to re-invigorate egg production, some producers turn off the lights and engage in a practice called ‘forced moulting’. They are starved from 5-14 days which may be combined with 1-2 days of water deprivation. Hens suffer greatly and may lose up to 35% of their body weight. This is illegal in UK, EU, Australia and New Zealand. Starving hens peak desperately at empty troughs and are driven to pluck and eat each other’s feathers. Countless hens die during and after. Some choke to death from impacted crops, when their food is restored. Layer hens are generally not used for human meat consumption, because it will be poor quality, due to their health.
Barn: tens of thousands of hens are kept in huge windowless sheds. They are free to roam within the building but aren’t usually allowed outside. There must be sufficient litter, straw or wood shavings, so they can dust bathe and scratch around. Bedding is provided and also perches for roosting to escape pecking. Nesting boxes are available, but many birds are not able to lay eggs there, and lay on the floor instead, where other birds eat them. As long as stocking densities are obeyed they have freedom, but critics say the birds are overcrowded.
Their instinct to live in a hierarchical community is thwarted and social tension results. Large flock sizes can bring a greater occurrence of manure born diseases, feather pecking, infighting and cannibalism. It is also difficult to find and remove dead birds. Barn might be misleading to the public, thinking hens are kept in clean bright airy conditions. Often this means huge filthy windowless sheds with thousands of birds packed into cramped spaces.
Free-range: most hens on commercial farms live in buildings like the barn system. EU laws require that free-range hens must always have access to an outside area with adequate vegetation during the daytime. There is no limit on flock size, a fact exploited by some producers, so they can be kept in cramped conditions, and there is no way of telling. Some birds may never step outside. Alternatively, there may be plenty of space. At night they come inside for protection from predators, to ensure their eggs are laid in nest boxes, and are housed with bedding and perches. Free-range does not mean organic. They can be given genetically modified food or fed with animal by-products. The use of antibiotics is allowed.
Organic: offers hens the highest potential standards of welfare, with more access to outdoors and less crowded conditions indoors (CIWF). They should have space to express their natural behaviours, freedom to roam on pasture during daylight hours and fed a natural diet free of chemicals. They are not given antibiotics.
Casualties of selective breeding: are the male chicks of the egg-laying breed, in all productions from caged to organic. Years ago, they would have been reared for meat, but because they come from a hybrid designed for egg production, they can’t lay eggs and don’t gain weight fast enough to produce it economically. Few are needed for breeding. Tragically, 30-40 million day old male chicks, are killed yearly in the UK.
Methods approved by the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), the Human Slaughter Association (HSA) and the RSPCA include maceration, exposure to gases and cervical dislocation. Culling is routine and global. Maceration (high speed grinder) is used worldwide, believed to be more humane, since death is thought to be less than a tenth of a second. Some countries use electrocution or suffocation. Ending their lives like this is beyond cruel. If that happened to a pet bird the person would be prosecuted.
The chicken’s bodies are used as fertilizer, feed for farm animals or reptiles or sold to laboratories for use in vivisection. Research is currently being done to identify female embryos within the shell. One method is by making them fluoresce under UV light, called hyper-spectral imaging. This would eliminate widespread culling. They are also trying to develop a new breed of chicken where females lay well, and males can be bred for meat.
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